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  • A short note on the term ‘narcissism’

    A short note on the term ‘narcissism’

    The term ‘narcissism’ refers to an intense form of self-regard, or attraction to one’s image. The term is derived from Ancient Greek mythology, which tells of a young man called Narcissus so fascinated by his own reflection that he drowns trying to embrace it.

    Famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud adopted the term from British sexologist Havelock Ellis to theorize male homosexuality as sexual attraction to an image of oneself. Freud later rejected this as an explanation of homosexuality, but he retained the concept of narcissism to describe the situation in which libido is withdrawn from external objects and redirected towards the ego. According to Freud, this is how children begin life (a stage he refers to as primary narcissism), and only gradually move away from this towards a situation in which cathexis is sought in the outside world.

    Also read: What is Meistergesang; definition and famous poets

  • Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) and his famous works

    Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) and his famous works

    Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) was an English author and physician. He was born in the parish of St Michael, Cheapside, in London. He was sent to school at Winchester College. He graduated from Oxford in January 1627. Then, he studied medicine at the universities of Padua and Montpellier. Browne completed his studies at Leiden, where he received a medical degree in 1633. Browne was knighted in September 1671, when King Charles II, accompanied by the Royal Court, visited Norwich. He was a great scholar and studied science and natural phenomena with great care and diligence. Although he was well-versed in science and had a specific aptitude for the natural sciences, he never set aside the popular matters of interest of his age. He had a taste for miracles and a bright sense of humour.

    He is noted particularly for his two great works, Religio Medici and Urn Burial. Religio Medici, meaning the religion of a physician, is a highly original work. It treats religious faith, without any religious bias, and remains singular in its queer mixture of religious devotion and scientific scepticism. Browne’s other work, Hydriotaphia, Urne-Buriall, or A Discourse of the Sepulchral Urns lately found in Norfolk, is commonly considered his masterpiece and contains his reflections on human vanity and mortality. The entire conception of the work, suggested by the discovery of certain Roman burial urns at Walsingham, is quite novel. Browne’s other works include The Garden Cyrus, a quite enjoyable treatise on the quincunx, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or, Enquiries into Very many received Tenets, and commonly presumed truths (1646), often known as Browne’s Vulgar Errors, an intellectual probe into popular superstition, and Christian Morals, a didactic work on Christian morality. A more minor work of incredible beauty and subtlety, entitled A Letter to a Friend, Upon occasion of the Death of his Intimate Friend, was published posthumously in 1690.
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    Browne’s subjects are pretty serious – philosophical as well as theological – but his treatment never appears dry or colourless. The artist in him is found superior to the thinker in him. The writer in him possesses an admirable prose style, which is, no doubt, ornate but has the cadence of poetry in it. In the making of a felicitous style in English prose, his role is, indeed, immensely significant.

  • John Heywood (c.1497- c.1580); biography and famous works

    John Heywood (c.1497- c.1580); biography and famous works

    John Heywood (c.1497- c.1580) was an English author and playwright. He was probably born in London. He married Elizabeth Rastell, niece of Sir Thomas More. From 1519 under Henry VIII, he was a singer and player on the virginals. Later he became the master of an acting group of boy singers. He received periodic grants that indicate that he was in favor of the court under Henry’s successors, Edward VI and Mary. He was much favored by Queen Mary, and on her death escaped persecution for his Catholic faith by withdrawing to Malines, and afterward to Antwerp and Louvain.

    Heywood’s works for the stage were interludes—entertainments popular in 15th- and 16th-century England, consisting of dialogues on a set subject. They were performed separately, preceding or following a play, or between the acts. The four interludes to which Heywood’s name is attached are witty, satirical debates in verse, ending on a didactic note like others of their genre and reflecting some influence of French farce and of English poet Geoffrey Chaucer.

    He published interludes- entertainments popular in 15th- and 16th-century England, consisting of dialogues on a set subject, substituting the human comedy of contemporary types for the instructive allegory of morality; but he used narrative and debate rather than plot and action. They were performed separately, preceding or following a play, or between the acts. The four interludes to which Heywood’s name is attached are witty, satirical debates in verse, ending on a didactic note like others of their genre and reflecting some influence of French farce and of English poet Geoffrey Chaucer.

    His principal works were The Playe Called the Foure P.P.…A Palmer. A Pardoner. A Potycary. A Pedler , written about 1530, The Play of the Wether, a new and mery interlude of all maner of Wethers (1533), in which Jupiter listens to conflicting opinions as to the kind of weather to be supplied, and A Play of Love (1534). Although entirely faithful to his Church, Heywood did not hesitate to criticize its weaknesses. In his plays, he broke away from the conventional tone and allegorical manner of morality and treated his themes in an ironical, good-humored style. He may also have been the author of The Pardoner and the Friar and Johan Johan the Husband, Tyb his Wife and Sir John the Priest. Heywood wrote a dialogue called Witty and Witless, collections of proverbs and epigrams, and a long satirical poem, The Spider and the Fly (1556). Though Heywood had performed for Elizabeth’s court, he was forced to flee England for Brabant because of the Act of Uniformity against Catholics in 1564. He died in Belgium.

    Also read; King James IV of Scotland (1473- 1513): Biography and Influences

  • Summary and Analysis of The Legend of Good Women by Geoffrey Chaucer

    Summary and Analysis of The Legend of Good Women by Geoffrey Chaucer

    The Legend of Good Women is a collection of stories written in the 1380s by Geoffrey Chaucer. It was composed between 1372 and 1386. It is the third-longest of Chaucer’s works, after The Canterbury Tales and Troilus and Criseyde. It is difficult to date the poem. It is perhaps the earliest work of Chaucer in which he uses Iambic pentameter or decasyllabic couplet form, the staple of The Canterbury Tales. It is also a dream poem. The poet, in a dream, is tried in a pastoral court of love as one sinning against the God of Love. The interference of a good woman of legend named Alceste helps the poet, who promises to do penance for his literary misdeeds by writing a work composed of exemplary stories of good women who are true lovers. The poet intends to write a massive poem about the legendary good women, but unfortunately, only nine are extant. These are stories of Cleopatra, Thisbe, Dido, Hypsipyle, Medea, Lucrece, Ariadne, Philomela, Phyllis, and Hypermnestra.

    • Cleopatra – Cleopatra, deeply devoted to Mark Antony, chooses to end her life nobly by the bite of an asp rather than face captivity after his death.

    • Thisbe – Thisbe, in a tragic twist of fate, kills herself with Pyramus’ sword when she finds him dead, believing her to have been slain by a lion.

    • Dido – Queen Dido, who lovingly shelters and supports Aeneas, is left abandoned and, stricken by despair, throws herself onto a funeral pyre.

    • Hypsipyle – Hypsipyle, after helping Jason and bearing him sons, is cruelly forsaken when he sails away to seek another wife, betraying her trust and love.

    • Medea – Medea, who used her magic to save Jason and secure the Golden Fleece, is later heartbroken when Jason repays her loyalty with betrayal and marriage to another woman.

    • Lucrece – Lucrece, a paragon of Roman virtue, takes her own life after Sextus Tarquinius rapes her, choosing death to preserve her honor and spark political revolution.

    • Ariadne – Ariadne, after helping Theseus escape the deadly labyrinth with her cleverness and love, is callously abandoned by him on the deserted island of Naxos.

    • Philomela – Philomela, violated and silenced by her brother-in-law Tereus, bravely weaves her story into a tapestry to reveal his crime and seek justice.

    • Phyllis – Phyllis, after faithfully awaiting the return of her lover Demophon, hangs herself in sorrow when he fails to keep his promise and never comes back.

    • Hypermnestra – Hypermnestra, alone among her murderous sisters, spares her new husband Lynceus out of true love and loyalty, defying her father’s brutal command.

    The Legend of Good Women seems a slight piece with his brief narratives of the unhappy fate of these women. This poem is influenced by the work of French love vision poets (especially Guillaume de Machaut), Vincent of Beauvais, Guido delle Colonne’s Historia destructionis Troiae, and Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Heroides. Thisbe’s story is perhaps the best. Maybe, Chaucer planned to make The Legend of Good Women his masterpiece, spending many valuable years of his life writing about the famous women who were true to love. But perhaps being sick of the theme of the stories or the plan of The Canterbury Tales growing in his mind he abruptly renounced it and started working on the prologue to The Canterbury Tales.

    Also read: Examine Wordsworth’s presentation of Venice in her days of glory and fall in his sonnet “On the Extinction of the Venice”

  • What is Meistergesang; definition and famous poets

    What is Meistergesang; definition and famous poets

    Meistergesang is German poetry for singing to melodies. The Meistersinger were mostly burghers of the 14th, 15th, and 16th c. and were organized into guilds on a hierarchical basis. In effect one graduated to the rank of Meister. The meetings were informal occasions and the songs were for the most part religious, didactic, and moral. In this respect, they differed from the Minnesingers whose literary descendants they were. The Meistersinger maintained and developed the traditions of the medieval Minnesingers. They belonged to the artisan and trading classes of the German towns and were regarded as their masters and the founders of their guild of twelve poets of the Middle High German period, which included Wolfram von Eschenbach, Konrad von Würzburg, Reinmar von Zweier, Heinrich Frauenlob and others.

    Meistersingers were particularly common in southern Germany and in the Rhineland. Two of the most famous were Hans Folz and Hans Sachs. The plot of Richard Wagner’s 1868 opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg revolves around the guild of Meistersingers and their singing contest.

  • Examine Wordsworth’s presentation of Venice in her days of glory and fall in his sonnet “On the Extinction of the Venice”

    Examine Wordsworth’s presentation of Venice in her days of glory and fall in his sonnet “On the Extinction of the Venice”

    William Wordsworth’s sonnet On the Extinction of the Venice is a touching account of Venice in her days of glory and prosperity as also of wretched fall under Napoleon’s imperialistic lust. The first eight lines- the octave of the sonnet present the first aspect, while the sestet treats the second, and is an emotive expression of the sad decline of the city.

    Wordsworth first dwells on what Venice once was. Venice was then possessed of power and prosperity. He personifies Venice as a maiden, bright and fresh. He refers to the strength of the Republic to dominate the gorgeous eastern countries and to act as a bulwark for the security of the West. Venice, as a centre of liberty, remained high and dignified in Europe.

    In his description, the poet calls this ‘a maiden city’, which was bright and free. He implies here the great heritage of the city as a place of unassailable freedom and asserts further that no force or fraud could violate or seduce that dignity of its freedom. Finally, the poet mentions the grand tradition of the city’s annual marriage to the Adriatic Sea. But all that belonged to the great past of Venice.

    The sestet is about the present – the present fall and degeneration of Venice. The aggression of Napoleon ended the glory and the liberty of Venice. The old Republic was ruthlessly crushed under the chariot wheels of a cruel conqueror. The sestet feelsingly refers to all that Venice lost – ’glories’, ‘titles’, and ‘strength’. The great Republic of the past was reduced to servitude under Napoleon. Venice could no more have all that once had made her great and glorious, and this is well echoed in the poet’s lament-

    And what if she had seen those glories fade
    Those titles vanish, and that strength decay

    The poet feels impulsively, too, that all that is left is a sad memory of a grand past for which a regretful tribute needs to be paid in all sincerity. He admits that great Venice has no more its old splendour, honour, and power, but asserts that the extinction of that grand past under the tyrannical imperialistic design is a matter of deep grief for all human hearts-

    Men are we, and must grieve, when even the shade
    Of that which once was great is pass’d away.

    Also read: Significance of the title of Far From the Madding Crowd by Thomas Hardy

  • A Short Summary of Nicholas Udall’s comedy play “Ralph Roister Doister”

    A Short Summary of Nicholas Udall’s comedy play “Ralph Roister Doister”

    “Ralph Roister Doister” is a comedy play written by Nicholas Udall. It was composed around 1553-1556. It is considered one of the earliest examples of English comedy and is notable for its humorous and lively depiction of characters and situations. The play revolves around the misadventures of the titular character, Ralph Roister Doister, as he attempts to court a wealthy widow named Dame Christian Custance.
    The play opens with the character Matthew Merrygreek, who acts as the play’s narrator and introduces the audience to the central figure, Ralph Roister Doister. Ralph is a boastful and self-important man who constantly boasts of his charm and desirability. He enlists the help of his witty and clever servant, Mathew Merygreeke, to help him woo Dame Custance. Custance is a widow of wealth and virtue. Ralph and another suitor, a scholarly man named Gawyn Goodluck, try to woo her. However, Dame Custance has no interest in marrying either of them and is determined to remain chaste and faithful to her late husband’s memory. His foolish and overly confident behavior marks Ralph’s attempts to woo Dame Custance. He sends her love letters filled with comically bad poetry and awkward attempts at wooing. Despite the advice and warnings of his friends, Ralph persists in his pursuit, even challenging Dame Custance’s other suitor, Gawyn Goodluck, to a duel. As the play unfolds, Ralph’s plans continue to backfire, and his lack of sophistication and genuine feeling become apparent to Dame Custance.
    In contrast, Gawyn Goodluck’s sincere and respectful demeanor gains him favor in her eyes. The climax of the play occurs when Dame Custance devises a scheme to teach Ralph a lesson. She agrees to marry him on the condition that he can find a priest willing to wed them in secret. Ralph falls for the ruse and searches for a priest, only to be humiliated. Ultimately, Ralph’s plans crumble completely, and he is left empty-handed and humbled. Having outwitted Ralph and recognized Gawyn’s genuine affection, Dame Custance agrees to marry Gawyn Goodluck.
    “Ralph Roister Doister” is a humorous and satirical comedy that explores themes of love, vanity, and the folly of pretension. The play shows Udall’s wit, wordplay, and comic timing, making it an important and entertaining contribution to early English drama.

    Importance in English Drama:
    First English Comedy in Verse: “Ralph Roister Doister” is significant because it is one of the earliest examples of an English comedy written in verse, marking a step toward the development of English Renaissance drama.

    Precursor to Shakespeare: It is often considered a precursor to later works by Shakespeare and other Renaissance dramatists who would build on these comic traditions.

    Also read; A short note on Widsith, an Anglo Saxon poem and its importance

     

  • King James IV of Scotland (1473- 1513): Biography and Influences

    King James IV of Scotland (1473- 1513): Biography and Influences

    King James IV of Scotland, born on March 17, 1473, was the son of James III and Margaret of Denmark. He ascended to the throne in 1488, following the death of his father in the Battle of Sauchieburn. His reign marked a period of relative stability and prosperity for Scotland. He was known for his interest in the arts and sciences. He was a patron of literature, music, and the visual arts, and contributed to the cultural flourishing of his time. He supported the work of poets and scholars, making his court a center of intellectual activity. In 1503, James IV married Margaret Tudor, the daughter of King Henry VII of England, in an effort to strengthen ties between Scotland and England. This marriage later had significant implications for the broader political landscape, as their great-grandson, James VI of Scotland, became James I of England, uniting the crowns in 1603.

    Despite his efforts to maintain peace, James IV engaged in military campaigns. One of the most notable events was the Battle of Flodden in 1513. James personally led an invasion of England, resulting in a disastrous defeat for the Scots. The king himself perished in the battle, making him the last British monarch to die in combat. James IV’s reign is often remembered as a time of economic growth and cultural advancement in Scotland. His interest in learning and the arts left a lasting impact on the country. However, his military ventures, particularly the Battle of Flodden, had significant consequences for Scotland. He faced challenges related to religious tensions during the Reformation period. While he generally sought to maintain stability, religious issues would become more pronounced in the reigns of his successors.  His legacy is intertwined with the broader historical context of the late 15th and early 16th centuries in Europe.

  • What is Deus ex machina: Definition, Features and Examples

    Definition:
    Deus ex machina, a Latin phrase meaning “god from the machine,” refers to a narrative device or plot device in storytelling where a seemingly unsolvable problem is suddenly and abruptly resolved by an unexpected and often improbable intervention. This intervention is typically brought about by a character, event, or force that appears out of nowhere, serving as a convenient solution to the conflict at hand.

    Features:

    Unexpected Resolution: The hallmark of deus ex machina is the sudden and unexpected resolution of a complex or seemingly impossible situation. This resolution is often introduced in the latter part of a story.

    External Intervention: The resolution is usually external to the established plot and characters. It involves an external force or element that hasn’t been adequately foreshadowed or developed throughout the narrative.

    Convenience: Deus ex machina is often criticized for its convenient nature, as it can feel forced and contrived. It may give the impression that the author couldn’t find a plausible or satisfying way to conclude the story organically.

    Absence of Setup: Unlike a well-developed plot twist or resolution, deus ex machina lacks proper setup or groundwork within the narrative. It appears to come out of nowhere, leaving the audience with a sense of disbelief.

    Examples:

    1.  “Great Expectations” by Charles Dickens (1861): In the conclusion of the novel, Pip suddenly comes into a large fortune from an unknown benefactor, changing his social status and resolving many of the conflicts in the story. The revelation of his mysterious benefactor is somewhat unexpected and could be considered a deus ex machina.

    2. “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte (1847): In the novel’s climax, Mr. Rochester’s marriage to Bertha is abruptly resolved by a convenient fire that leaves him blind and maimed. This event clears the path for Jane and Rochester to be together, and some critics argue that it represents a form of deus ex machina.

    3. “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” by William Shakespeare (c. 1595/96): The play concludes with the intervention of Oberon and Puck, who magically resolve the romantic entanglements and misunderstandings among the characters. The fairy king and his servant’s interventions could be seen as a form of deus ex machina in the context of a comedy.

    4. “The Hound of the Baskervilles” by Arthur Conan Doyle (1902): Although not a traditional deus ex machina, the sudden appearance of Holmes at the end of the novel, having secretly been investigating all along, has been viewed by some as a convenient and unexpected resolution to the mystery.

    5. “Dracula” by Bram Stoker (1897): The ending of “Dracula” involves the unexpected and almost coincidental demise of the vampire. Some critics argue that the resolution, particularly involving Mina’s role, borders on deus ex machina as it brings a swift and somewhat convenient conclusion to the vampire threat.

    6. War of the Worlds (2005): In the film adaptation of H.G. Wells’ “War of the Worlds,” the aliens are defeated by Earth’s microorganisms. While this is consistent with the source material, it can be seen as a deus ex machina due to the sudden and unanticipated resolution.

    7. “The Wizard of Oz”: The Wizard’s sudden appearance and resolution of the characters’ quests are considered by some as a deus ex machina, as it is an unexpected intervention that quickly resolves their problems.

    While deus ex machina can provide a swift resolution to a story, it is often criticized for its lack of narrative satisfaction and the potential to undermine the integrity of a well-crafted plot. Writers are generally encouraged to seek more organic and well-established resolutions to maintain a sense of coherence and engagement for the audience.

  • Upamanyu Chatterjee: Biography and famous books

    Upamanyu Chatterjee: Biography and famous books

    Upamanyu Chatterjee is one of the new lights of Indian Engish literature. He was born in 1959 in Patna, Bihar. Upamanyu is a prominent writer and IAS as well. He studied English literature at Delhi University and then in 1983 he joined the Indian Administrative Service. His novels are characterized by humour which goes beyond the comic sense, sometimes it is against the traditional life, sometimes it is the minute description of the middle-class life of Indian society.

    WORKS:

    English, August: An Indian Story, published in 1988, deals with the life and self-discovery of a newly appointed trainee civil servant, Agastya Sen, in a rural place. It is an entertaining novel, basically for those who want to discover modern India. Agastya Sen is amazed to see rural India. He never imagined the life of these places. The experience, which he gathers from the place, helps him to realize himself, to discover himself. In 1994, the novel was adapted into a film by the same name.

    The Last Burden, published in 1994, deals with the life of an Indian middle-class family. He portrays the need, desire, emotions and sacrifices of the middle-class family in India. Here he differentiates the nuclear family and atomic family. The story revolves around Jamun, a workless young man, Shamanand, the father and Urmila, the dying mother.

    The Mammaries of the Welfare State was published in 2000. It is the sequel of Chatterjee’s debut novel English, August : An Indian story. Here in this novel, the author describes eight years of Agastya Sen’s life. Chatterjee has frequently used black humour in this novel. In 2004, Chatterjee won the Sahitya Akademi Award for this novel.

    SELECTED WORKS

    • English, August: An Indian Story (1998)
    • The Last Burden (1994)
    • The Mammaries of the Welare State (2000)
    • Weight Loss (2006)Way to Go (2010)
    Awards

    2004 Sahitya Akademi Award for The Mammaries of the Welfare State.
    2009 Officier de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for “extremely contribution to the contemporary literature”