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  • Discuss about Black comedy or Dark comedy, its characteristics, examples

    Discuss about Black comedy or Dark comedy, its characteristics, examples

    Definition of Black Comedy:

    A black comedy, or dark comedy, is a comic work that employs black humor that makes light of the otherwise solemn subject matter, or gallows humor. The definition of black humor is problematic; it has been argued that it corresponds to the earlier concept of gallows humor. Black comedy is a form of drama that displays a marked disillusionment and cynicism. It shows human beings without convictions and with little hope, regulated by fate or fortune or incomprehensible powers. In fact, human beings are in an ‘absurd’ predicament. At its darkest, such comedy is pervaded by a kind of sour despair: we can’t do anything, so we may as well laugh. The wit is mordant and the humor sardonic.

    Origins of Black Humor

    The term black humor (from the French humour noir) was coined by the surrealist theoretician André Breton in 1935, to designate a sub genre of comedy and satire in which laughter arises from cynicism and skepticism, often relying on topics such as death. Breton coined the term for his book Anthology of Black Humor (Anthologie de l’humour noir) which is concerned with the humorous treatment of the shocking, horrific and macabre, in which he credited Jonathan Swift as the originator of black humor and gallows humor, and included excerpts from 45 other writers. Breton included both examples in which the wit arises from a victim, with which the audience empathizes, as is more typical in the tradition of gallows humor and examples in which the comedy is used to mock the victim, whose suffering is trivialized, and leads to sympathizing with the victimizer, as is the case with Sade. Black humor is related to that of the grotesque genre.

    Breton identified Swift as the originator of black humor and gallows humor, particularly in his pieces Directions to Servants (1731), A Modest Proposal (1729), A Meditation Upon a Broom-Stick (1710), and a few aphorisms.

    Black comedy has its roots in the tradition of tragi-comedy, with certain works of Shakespeare exhibiting elements of dark humor, such as The Merchant of Venice, Measure for Measure, All’s Well That Ends Well, and The Winter’s Tale. Additionally, playwrights like Jean Anouilh and Jean Genet are known for writing plays that exhibit black comedic elements, such as Voyageur sans bagage (1936) and Les Bonnes (1947). Modern playwrights, including Edward Albee (Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?), Harold Pinter (The Homecoming), and Joe Orton (Loot), also contributed to the genre of black comedy.

    Early American writers who employed black humor were Nathanael West and Vladimir Nabokov. In 1965 a mass-market paperback, titled Black Humor, was released. Containing work by a myriad of authors, which included J.P. Donleavy, Edward Albee, Joseph Heller, Thomas Pynchon, John Barth, Vladimir Nabokov, Bruce Jay Friedman, himself, and Louis-Ferdinand Celine, this was one of the first American anthologies devoted to the conception of black humor as a literary genre; the publication also sparked nation wide interest in black humor.

    Themes of Black Humor:

    The purpose of black comedy is to make light of the serious and often taboo subject matter, and some comedians use it as a tool for exploring vulgar issues, thus provoking discomfort and serious thought as well as amusement in their audience. Popular themes of the genre include murder, suicide, depression, abuse, mutilation, war, barbarism, drug abuse, terminal illness, domestic violence, sexual violence, pedophilia, insanity, nightmare, disease, racism, homophobia, sexism, disability (both physical and mental), chauvinism, corruption, and crime. Black comedy might include an element of irony or even fatalism. For example, the archetypal black-comedy self- mutilation appears in the English novel Tristram Shandy. Tristram, five years old at the time, starts to urinate out of an open window for lack of a chamber pot. The sash falls and circumcises him; his family reacts with both chaotic action and philosophic digression.

    Other Examples:

    In the 20th century, black comedy became more prominent in the literature of the absurd. Writers like Franz Kafka, Albert Camus, and Samuel Beckett incorporated elements of absurdity and dark humor into their works. For example, Kafka’s The Trial and Metamorphosis reflect absurdity, while Camus and Ionesco’s works explore themes of existentialism and life as a tragic farce.

    Some less famous books of darkly comic include Serge Godefroy’s Les Loques (1964), Thomas Pynchon’s V (1963) and his The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 (1961), D. D. Bell’s Dicky, or The Midnight Ride of Dicky Vere (1970) and Mordecai Richler’s St Urbain’s Horseman (1966).

  • Discuss about the major characteristics of romantic poetry

    Discuss about the major characteristics of romantic poetry

    Definition:

    Romantic Poetry refers to a literary movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, primarily in Europe. It was characterized by an emphasis on emotion, imagination, individualism, nature, and the sublime, in contrast to the rationalism and order that dominated the earlier Enlightenment period. Romantic poets often explored themes of personal freedom, the beauty and power of nature, the experience of the sublime, and the celebration of the imagination over reason.

    Important poets in this movement include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats.

    Characteristics of Romantic Poetry:

    The chief characteristics of romantic poetry are:
    (a) All romantic literature is subjective. It is an expression of the inner urges of the soul of the artist. The poet does not care for rules and regulations but gives free expression to his emotions. Emphasis is laid on inspiration and intuition rather than on the observance of set rules. The poet writes according to his fancy and is often guilty of wild excesses. Romantic poetry is fanciful, introspective, and often marked by extravagance. Hence, it has been criticized as irregular and wild. As the poet is free to write on any theme and in any form he likes, we have an immense variety of romantic poetry.
    (b) Romantic poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful passions or feelings. The romantic poet is gifted with a strong “organic sensibility”; he feels more than there is to feel and sees more than there is to see. Carried away by his powerful passions and excited imagination, the poet does not care for the perfection of form or clarity of expression. The result is much vagueness and obscurity. To them, the substance is more important than the form.
    (c) The romantic is extraordinarily alive to the wonder, mystery, and beauty of the universe. He feels the presence of unseen powers in nature. This unseen, transcendental world is more real for him than the world of the senses. The supernatural has a special charm for him; the stories of fairies, ghosts, and witchcraft attract him. His poetry is an expression of his wonder at the magic and mystery of the universe. Supernaturalism is an important element in romantic inspiration.
    (d) Romantic poetry is often pessimistic in tone. A romantic is a dissatisfied individual. He may be dissatisfied with the circumstances of his own life, with his age, with literary conventions and traditions of the day, or with the general fate of humanity. A romantic may revolt against the existing conditions and may seek to reform them, or he may try to escape into the imaginative world of his creation. Often, he escapes into the past. The Middle Ages have a special fascination for him, for they not only provide him with an escape from the sordid realities of the present but also delight his heart with their color, pageantry, and magic. The remote, the distant, and the unknown delight him for this very reason. While some may escape into the past (the world of classical antiquity or the Middle Ages), others may dream of a better and happier world to come and build “utopias” of the future. They may see a vision of a golden age and sing of it in their poetry. In short, the romantics look before and after and pine for what is not.
    (e) Zest for the beauties of the external world characterizes all romantic poetry. Romantic poetry carries us away from the suffocating atmosphere of critics into the fresh and invigorating company of the out-of-door world. It not only sings of the sensuous beauty of nature but also sees into the “heart of things” and reveals the soul that lies behind it.
    (f) Love of Nature leads, by an easy transition, to the love of those who live in her lap. The romantics have an instinct for the elemental simplicities of life. Their hearts overflow with sympathy for the poor and the downtrodden. They glorify the innocence and simplicity of the commoner. They try to see into the heart of man and understand human nature. They find the divine in man, plead for his emancipation from all bondage, and claim equal rights and liberties for the humblest. Romantic poetry is democratic. Not only do the Romantics treat the commoner, but they also use his language for their purposes. Thus, Wordsworth raised his voice against the inane and artificial diction of the 18th-century classics and advocated the use of the language of the commoner for purposes of poetry. Indeed, he went to the extent of remarking that there is no essential difference between the language of poetry and that of prose.
    (h) Their interest in the past leads the romantics to experiment with old meters and poetic forms. The 18th century confined itself to the use only of one meter, i.e., the Heroic Couplet. With the coming of the Romantics, there is a revival of a number of ancient meters. The Spenserian stanza, the ballad meter, the blank verse, the lyric, the ode, and the sonnet are all revived and soon attained wide popularity.
    English romanticism is thus both a revolt and a revival; it is a revolt against 18th-century traditions and conventions; it is a revival of old English masters of poetry.

  • Definition and examples of Peripeteia and Anagnorisis

    Definition and examples of Peripeteia and Anagnorisis

    Peripeteia:

    Peripeteia has been translated as ‘reversal of fortune.’ A peripeteia occurs when a person seeks to achieve a particular result, but the reverse of the result is produced. It brings about irony.

    Examples: In Marlowe’s Jew of Malta, Barabas was boiling oil in a cauldron to destroy his enemy, but he dropped into it and died. In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth heard the equivalent prophecy of the witches and sought to kill Banquo and all his enemies. However, in reality, he got no peace and security, but only the damnation of his soul.

    Anagnorisis:

    Anagnorisis may be translated as ‘recognition or discovery.’ Anagnorisis is a sudden realization of a grim truth. It is the point at which a principal character recognizes or discovers another character’s true identity or the true nature of their circumstances. Aristotle, in his Poetics, defined anagnorisis as “a change from ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune.” When Oedipus kills his father and marries his mother in ignorance and later learns the truth, or when Iphigeneia in Tauris realizes in time that the strangers she is to sacrifice are her brother and his friend and refrains from sacrificing them. Aristotle has spoken of six types of anagnorisis. The first type relates to the discovery of signs. The second type is the discovery, rather arbitrarily suggested by the dramatist. The third type of discovery is based on memory. The fourth type of it is made through reasoning. The fifth type is based on false reasoning. Moreover, the last type is made by natural means.

    Examples:

    1. Discovery by Signs: Anagnorisis occurs when a character discovers the truth based on external signs, symbols, or clues.

    Example: In The Winter’s Tale, Leontes undergoes a revelation when he sees the statue of his wife, Hermione, which leads him to realize his earlier mistake of accusing her unjustly of infidelity. The statue is a symbol of truth and the process of discovery by signs, ultimately revealing the true nature of his actions.

    2. Discovery Arbitrarily Suggested by the Dramatist: This type refers to the dramatist’s intervention in creating recognition or revelation, sometimes without prior foreshadowing.

    Example: In William Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, Viola’s disguise as Cesario and the eventual recognition by her twin brother, Sebastian, is an example of discovery arbitrarily suggested by the dramatist. The entire plot hinges on mistaken identity and deception, and the dramatic revelations about the characters’ true identities are revealed in an almost arbitrary, sudden way.

    3. Discovery Based on Memory: It involves a character recalling a past event or experience that helps them understand the truth of their present situation.

    Example: In The Odyssey, Odysseus’ reunion with his wife, Penelope, is an example of anagnorisis based on memory. Penelope tests Odysseus to confirm his identity by asking him about their bed, which only the two of them know about. This memory leads Odysseus to reveal his true identity, confirming their reunion.

    4. Discovery Through Reasoning: It happens when a character deduces the truth through logical thinking or reasoning.

    Example: In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, Oedipus’ discovery of his true identity occurs through reasoning. As he investigates the murder of King Laius, he pieces together various clues, such as the prophecy and the shepherd’s testimony. His reasoning process leads him to the realization that he is both the murderer and the son of Jocasta, his wife and mother.

    5. Discovery Based on False Reasoning: Here, the character discovers something, but their reasoning is flawed or based on incorrect information, leading to a misinterpretation.

    Example: In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth’s discovery of his fate based on the witches’ prophecy is an example of false reasoning. The witches tell him that he will not be harmed by anyone “born of a woman,” which leads him to believe that he is invincible. However, he misinterprets this, failing to recognize that Macduff, who was born through a Caesarean section, is the one who will ultimately kill him. His reasoning is flawed, leading to his tragic end.

    6. Discovery by Natural Means: It involves a revelation that comes naturally, often through fate or nature, as opposed to deliberate or intellectual realization.

    Example: In King Lear, the discovery of Lear’s true circumstances—his estranged relationship with his daughters and his sanity—occurs through natural means. The storm in which Lear wanders reflects the turmoil within his mind. His eventual recognition of his mistakes and his realization about the true nature of his daughters (especially Goneril and Regan) happens naturally as his madness clears, though tragically, too late.

    Aristotle speaks of two types of plot in Poetics– simple and complex. A simple plot is one without peripeteia and anagnorisis, while a complex plot has peripeteia, anagnorisis, or both.

     

  • Discuss on the periodical The Rambler (1750-1752)

    Discuss on the periodical The Rambler (1750-1752)

    “The Rambler” was a notable periodical written by Samuel Johnson, a prominent English writer, poet, and lexicographer. It was published between 1750 and 1752. Total 208 essays were written over the span of two years and were widely read during that time. In “The Rambler,” Samuel Johnson covered many topics, including morality, literature, society, and human nature. Each essay thoughtfully explored various subjects, often containing moral lessons, philosophical insights, and witty observations.

    The periodical was known for its eloquent and thought-provoking prose, which expressed Johnson’s mastery of the English language and his ability to engage readers in intellectual discourse. The essays were published twice a week – Tuesdays and Saturdays and were widely circulated, contributing to Johnson’s reputation as one of the leading literary figures of his time. “The Rambler” played a significant role in shaping 18th-century English literature and thought. It provided a platform for Johnson to express his views on society and culture, and his essays continue to be studied and appreciated for their enduring relevance and literary merit.