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  • Discuss about Parnassus Plays

    Discuss about Parnassus Plays

    Parnassus Plays is the name given to a group of three satiric comedies produced between 1598 and 1602 by St John’s College, Cambridge students. It consists of The Pilgrimage to Parnassus, The Return from Parnassus, and The Return from Parnassus Or the Scourage of Simony. The second and third plays are sometimes called Part One and Part Two of The Return from Parnassus. Authorship has not been established, but they seem to be the work of two dramatists, unusually writing academic drama in English rather than Latin (or even Greek), as was more common. They have been attributed to John Day and, more recently, John Weever of Queen’s and Joseph Hall.

    Parnassus Plays aim to set forth the wretched state of scholars and the small respect paid to learning by the world. The first play, The Pilgrimage to Parnassus, describes the progress of the two students, Philomusus and Studioso, through the university courses of logic, rhetoric, etc., and the temptations that are set before them by their meeting with Madido, a drunkard; Stupido, a puritan who hates learning; Amoretto, a lover; and Ingenioso, a disappointed student. The Return from Parnassus deals with the struggles of the two students after the completion of their studies at the university. It shows them discovering by the bitter experience of how little pecuniary value their learning is.  In the second play, Gullio, a fool, quotes from Venus and Adonis and Romeo and Juliet and exclaims, ‘O sweet Master Shakespeare! I’ll have his picture in my study at the court.’ The play contains the earliest known parody of Shakespearian verse, written in the rhyme-royal stanza form of Lucrece. They are full of allusions to contemporary literature and drama. In the third, more satirical, section Richard Burbage and Will Kemp audition recent students for places in their company, using Richard III’s opening soliloquy as a test piece, and the students are shown on their way to London, learning how to catch a patron or cheat a tradesman, and following menial occupations. Eventually, discouraged, they return to Cambridge. The plays were first published in 1886 and edited by J. B. Leishman (1949).

    Also read: Discuss the term Ideology: Definition, Meaning and Its Significance

  • Discuss about the Rise of Satire in English Literature and famous writers of Satire

    Discuss about the Rise of Satire in English Literature and famous writers of Satire

    Definition and Meaning of Satire:

    Satire, in general, means a literary composition, in verse or prose, to expose the vices or follies of some person or persons, to ridicule or banter them. But strictly speaking, satire is a poem, aiming to expose the prevalent vices or follies of a society or a section of society. The objective of satire is critical, but as noted by John Dryden, a good satire has clinical and corrective effects, too. In his language, “The true end of satire is the amendment of vices by correction. And he who writes honestly is no more an enemy to the offender than the physician to the patient when he prescribes harsh remedies to an inveterate disease.”

    However, the inclusion of satire only in the poetic composition is no longer acceptable. Today, there are more forceful prose satires than poetical ones. Hence, the range of satire cannot be kept confined now to poetry alone. Satire may, thus, be described as a literary form which is designed to incite contempt, fun, or disgust at what is ridiculous or unseemly. The word has come from the Latin term ‘satura’, which initially meant a medley or miscellany. In its earliest form, satire probably meant a farce or parody.

    Origin of Satire:

    The origin of satire is, however, found in the history of Roman literature. It has been claimed that the only literary form, invented by the Romans, is satire. This contention, however, is not very accurate. There is a clear indication that early Greek writers indulged in the composition of satire. There is sufficient evidence in early Greek literature to show how the Greek masters used invectives to correct and improve general and public morals. Satire is not absent even in the early Greek drama and Greek comedy. A delicate blending of satire and poetry characterises the mighty works of Aristophanes, perhaps the greatest name in classical Greek Comedy.

    Roman Contributions to Satire:

    But satire, as a particular form of literature and a potent influence on later European writers, is mainly a creation of the Latin masters. As a characteristic poetic form, the inventor of satire was Caius Lucilius. He was followed by a more brilliant figure, Horace. Horace wrote several realistic, humorous, and satirical poems, in which he investigated and castigated social abuses. Horace’s satire, however, is not merely personal. It bears a particular note of universality and philosophy. Next to Horace comes the name of Persius, who has displayed both philosophical outlook and literary originality in his satirical works. But, perhaps, the greatest Roman satirist is Juvenal. His originality lies particularly in his introduction of a rhetorical strength and a tragic grandeur into verse satires.

    Satire in the 18th Century: Swift and Pope:

    In the first half of the 18th c., there flourished the two greatest satirists in the history of literature; namely, Swift and Pope. Swift excelled in prose, Pope in verse. The Dean’s principal works were A Tale of a Tub (1704), The Battle of the Books (1704), Gulliver’s Travels (1726), and A Modest Proposal (1729). He was also an accomplished verse satirist, as he showed, for example, in Verses on the Death of Dr Swift (1739). Pope’s main works were The Rape of the Lock (1714), miscellaneous Satires, Epistles and Moral Essays published during the 1730s and The Dunciad (1728, 1729, 1742 and 1743). Other notable instances of satire in English literature from the mid-18th c. onwards were Fielding’s burlesque play Tom Thumb (1730) – burlesque was a particularly favoured means of satire at this time – his Shamela (1741) and his Jonathan Wild (1743). To these examples, one should add Johnson’s great poems, London (1738) and The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749), Charles Churchill’s Rosciad (1761) and The Prophecy of Famine (1763) and other works, and the anonymous Letters of Junius (1769-71). In France, the greatest prose satirist of the period was unquestionably Voltaire. Minor verse satirists of the later 18th c. were John Wolcot, Christopher Anstey, Allan Ramsay and Robert Burns.

    Satire in the Romantic Period:

    Most major poets who flourished at the turn of the century and during the Romantic period wrote satire occasionally. Crabbe, for instance, in his narrative poem The Borough (1810), critically portrays the moral weaknesses, pretensions, and injustices of English village life.; Shelley in Masque of Anarchy (1832) uses satire to expose the cruelty and corruption of the British government; Keats in his unfinished The Cap and Bells (1848) pokes fun at pompous aristocrats. However, the major satirist of this period was undoubtedly Byron, who was outstandingly successful in the satiric mode in Don Juan (1819–24), mocks society’s hypocrisy, political corruption, romantic ideals, and even literary conventions. And in  The Vision of Judgment (1822), Byron satirises the poet laureate Robert Southey and his political shift from radical to conservative. Byron uses biting wit to criticise Southey’s self-righteousness and the broader societal moral decay.

    Also read: What is Parody: Definition, characteristics and examples

  • A short note on the periodical Tel Quel by Phillipe Sollers

    A short note on the periodical Tel Quel by Phillipe Sollers

    In 1960 the French novelist and critic Phillipe Sollers (1936-) founded the literary periodical Tel Quel, and later he outlined its objectives in his discourse Logiques (1968). The aims are basically ideological and activist, as well as aesthetic. One of its aims is to restore to language its original revolutionary power, and it advances the principle that ‘literature is language made with language’.

    Tel Quel school, which has been influenced by, among others, Roland Barthes, and also by theories of semiotics and semiology, has been particularly concerned to promote interest in and more understanding of such French writers as the Marquis de Sade (1740-1814), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-98), Lautréamont (1846-70) and Antonin Artaud (1896 1948), who had a considerable influence on theatre and drama in the 20th c.

    Also read: A short note on Prague Linguistic Circle

  • Discuss the term Ideology: Definition, Meaning and Its Significance

    Discuss the term Ideology: Definition, Meaning and Its Significance

    The term ‘Ideology’ was coined by the French philosopher Antoine Destutt de Tracy, who conceived it in 1796 as the “science of ideas” to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. Ideology is a set of beliefs, convictions, or ideas that both bind a particular group of people together and determine the actions they take. For this reason, ideology is often used-particularly in the media, as a pejorative, as though to say only certain types of people have (indeed ‘suffer from’) ideology and it renders them incapable of thinking for themselves. But, as commentators like Fredric Jameson and Slavoj Žižek argue, this position is itself ideological because it is built on the tacit, but obviously, deeply held belief that its position, i.e., the allegedly non-ideological position, is the ‘normal’ or ‘commonsense’ view of things. In contrast, the so-called ideological position is aberrant. The notion of a non-ideological position is thus a myth or, better yet, a projection. This, in turn, points to two other characteristics of ideology: it is frequently invisible to its adherents, and it serves to create rules or regimes of inclusion and exclusion.
    Because of its invisibility, ideology is often equated with ‘false consciousness.’ To escape his censors, the imprisoned Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci used the term ‘hegemony’ in place of ideology and, in doing so, explained the invisibility of ideology- it is, he argued, the role of ideology to define and police that which counts as commonsense, that which everybody knows to be so, and insofar as it does that it is invisible. The task of any politics, then, according to Gramsci, is to overturn this state of affairs, but not so as to get rid of ideology altogether- impossible, in any case- but rather to make way for a new ideology, one which is clear about interests.
    Marxists generally refer to this formation of ideology as class consciousness. Perhaps the most widely used definition of ideology is the one given by French Marxist Louis Althusser, who conceived it as an imaginary relation to real conditions.

    Also read: What is Touchstone Method?

  • A short note on Prague Linguistic Circle

    A short note on Prague Linguistic Circle

    The Prague Linguistic Circle (PLC) was a group of linguists and scholars founded in Prague, Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic) in 1926. It was initially formed by a group of linguists who were dissatisfied with the prevailing approaches to language study at the time, particularly the dominant historical-comparative linguistics. They sought to establish a new framework that would focus on the structure of language and its functions in communication. The members of the PLC, including prominent linguists such as Roman Jakobson, Vilém Mathesius, and Nikolay Trubetzkoy, aimed to establish a systematic approach to the analysis of language that would be grounded in empirical data. They drew inspiration from the structuralist movement in Europe, particularly the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, whose ideas on the structure of language were influential to their approach.

    The Prague Linguistic Circle emphasised the importance of synchronic analysis, which examines the structure of language at a specific point in time, rather than diachronic analysis, which focuses on historical development and language change. They viewed language as a dynamic system of interrelated elements, and they developed methods for analysing phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics within this framework. One of the key contributions of the Prague Linguistic Circle was the development of the theory of functionalism, which emphasised the functional aspects of language and its role in communication. They argued that the structure of language should be understood in relation to its communicative function and the social context in which it is used.

    The work of the PLC had a significant impact on various branches of linguistics, including phonetics, phonology, and morphology. They introduced new concepts and methods, such as phonemic analysis, markedness, and functional sentence perspective. Their approach also influenced other linguistic schools, such as the Copenhagen School in Denmark and the Moscow Linguistic Circle in Russia. Despite its dissolution during World War II and the subsequent political changes in Czechoslovakia, the legacy of the Prague Linguistic Circle continues to influence linguistic research to this day. The ideas and methods developed by its members have shaped the field of linguistics, particularly in the areas of structural linguistics, functionalism, and the analysis of language as a dynamic system.

    Also read: What is one act play; definition, characteristics and examples

  • Comment on Somerset Maugham’s narrative method and prose style in “The Lotus Eater”

    Comment on Somerset Maugham’s narrative method and prose style in “The Lotus Eater”

    In the English literature of the present century, Somerset Maugham is a big name. As a novelist, dramatist, and storyteller, his genius remains indisputable. His stories exhibit remarkably his inexhaustible creative urge, which is manifested equally in content and form, in theme and technique.

    The Lotus Eater, for instance, is a simple yet impressive short story that reveals Maugham’s literary genius in more than one way. It is simple, though somewhat unconventional in its theme. The story, in fact, is impressive, fascinating enough, although it has nothing of wonderful characters or theatrically thrilling incidents. In fact, Maugham is found to weave here an attractive tale out of simple facts and average characters. His grand technique as a storyteller is marked in a number of ways.

    In the first place, Maugham, as stated, is found to possess here a wonderful inventive power to make an attractive story out of simple incidents and common characters. In The Lotus Eater, Maugham’s main character is a quite commonplace fellow. It is his peculiar zest for life that builds a story of much human significance. He makes a singular choice to leave his financial security and usual duty to live in the bosom of nature to enjoy absolute leisure and pleasure. Such a choice proves to be a matter of much interest. Maugham exploits this situation well to have a truly effective, harmonious plot of immense human interest.

    In the second place, Maugham’s style has a simple, straightforward narrative method. There is nothing abstruse or abstract in his writing. What he has to state, he states in a plain, clear manner, and that is why his story proves so immensely popular and easily appealing. In The Lotus Eater, he tells his story directly and in a simple style that is plain and lucid. The author’s first meeting with Wilson, the latter’s account to him of his daring venture, and his death are all stated in an easily convincing way. The concluding paragraph of the story contains some short and straightforward sentences, such as – He died last year. He had endured that life for six years……….. Perhaps he died of the beauty of that sight.”

    Again, The Lotus Eater is a short story, and a good short story has a technique of its own. Brevity, the paucity in characters, the simplicity of technique, and the singleness of effect constitute the marks of a good short story. The story The Lotus Eater is found to possess all these elements. Maugham’s way of narrating his tale testifies to his skill as the author of a sound short story.

    In the third place, Maugham’s style is not merely plain and precise, but it is also pointed and occasionally trenchant in his observation and remarks. The very first paragraph of the story The Lotus Eater may be instanced in this connection – “Most people, the vast majority, in fact, lead the lives that circumstances have thrust upon them, and though some repine, looking upon themselves as round pegs in square holes… They are like tram-cars travelling forever on the selfsame rails. They go backwards and forwards, backwards and forwards, inevitably, till they can go no longer and then are sold as scrap-iron.” The entire expression is simple, but pointed enough to indicate distinctly the helplessness of the vast majority of people who surrender meekly to the circumstances in which they are placed. Such expressions, tinged with diverting irony, add variety to Maugham’s simple style, and variety is not only the spice of life but also constitutes the charm of a good literary style.

    Lastly, Maugham’s prose is conversational, rather colloquial. He writes as if he is speaking fluently, and so there is a continuous flow in his style that never looks heavy or unnatural. In The Lotus Eater, whether in his description of life at Capri or in the account of Wilson, his style is remarkably natural, familiar. It has nothing to distract and remains sufficiently flexible and felicitous.

    In fact, Maugham’s very method of writing has a spontaneous appeal and remains wonderfully flexible and felicitous all through. This makes his prose more diverting, impressive, and shows him as an authority on the prose style in modern English.

    Somerset Maugham’s style is really that of a great master. It is wonderfully lively and simple, with necessary twists and turns. His theme or subject matter is original, but it is his telling technique that has made his story so vivid and impressive.

    Also read: A short note on the Narrative Technique of the novel Surfacing by Margaret Atwood

  • Tragi-Comedy; Definition, Characteristics and Example

    Tragi-Comedy; Definition, Characteristics and Example

    Definition:

    ‘Tragi-Comedy’, as the very name signifies, is a mingling of the seriousness of tragedy and the pleasantry of comedy. It is both tragedy and comedy, padded together into one new form. It is, in essence, a tragedy, in its very atmosphere, but has a characteristic happy ending of a comedy. Tragi-comedy, indeed, implies a happily ending tragedy.

    Examples:

    This type of comedy flourished in the Elizabethan age in the hands of Shakespeare and his followers. Some famous examples of Shakespearean tragi-comedies are Much Ado About Nothing, All’s Well that Ends Well, The Merchant of Venice, and Measure for Measure. All these plays are found bound together by one bond of harmony which characterizes each of them. In fact, each of these plays presents some grave matter, with certain gloomy problems, but the end is all happy. It is this happy ending that makes the play tragi-comedy, and not a tragedy.

    The success of the Elizabethan tragi-comedy is also perceived in Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher. Philaster, The Fair Maid of the Inn, The Prophetess, and A King and No King are some of the tragi-comedies attributed to them.

    The influence of the tragi-comedy is noticeable in the sentimental comedy of the eighteenth century and also faintly in the problem plays of modern times. In both of these types, the serious theme has a happy ending. The sentimental comedy, however, has a far lesser dramatic effectiveness than the tragi-comedy, while the modern problem play is far more realistic and didactic.

    Also read: What is Pastoral Elegy? Its Examples, and its Characteristics

  • A short note on the Narrative Technique of the novel Surfacing by Margaret Atwood

    A short note on the Narrative Technique of the novel Surfacing by Margaret Atwood

    In the novel Surfacing by Margaret Atwood, two narrative innovations are worth particular mention: Atwood’s unreliable narrator and her use of poetry in a work of prose fiction. Most of Atwood’s first-person narratives are characterized by a particular kind of unreliable narrator: one who seems to be a wonderfully reliable observer of details but who is also remarkably unreliable in her interpretation of details and events. Often called “flawed perceivers,” these unreliable narrators appear in a number of well-known works of the twentieth century that aim to give readers a glimpse into the characters’ thoughts (especially those by such Modernist writers as Ford Madox Ford, Henry James, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf). What characterizes Atwood’s unreliable narrators, however, is the way they seem, at first glance, to be entirely reliable. Only after we are lured into trusting them do we start to see the signs of their duplicity. The Surfacer, who we follow into a kind of nervous breakdown, is an excellent example.

    The second narrative innovation is peculiar to this novel. At a certain moment in the Surfacer’s breakdown, Atwood faces the dilemma of how to represent a woman who has abandoned language (as one of the trappings of civilization) in a novel that is written in the language. She opts to slip from standardized prose and punctuation into lines of poetry, which themselves flow back to prose. Consequently, in chapter 25, just after the Surfacer has seen a vision of her father, the novel’s lines shorten and become end-stopped, like the ragged-right-edged lines of poetry, before retiring into the long lines of prose. In a section, set apart from the rest of the chapter, the Surfacer pauses to notice a fish jump. But what at first appears to be a real fish jumping, then a “wooden fish,” and later on “antlered fish thing” or “protective spirit,” perhaps even the version of her father, before returning to the original (187). Consequently, the narrative’s movement from prose to poetry and back to prose follows the fish’s transformation from concrete reality and back again.

    Also read: Summary of King Horn, a Middle English verse romance.

  • What is Touchstone Method?

    What is Touchstone Method?

    The Touchstone method, also known as the Touchstone technique, is a concept and approach used in various fields such as education, literature analysis, and self-reflection. It involves using a specific reference point or benchmark, referred to as a “touchstone,” to evaluate or measure the quality, value, or characteristics of something else. The term “touchstone” originated from a black stone used in ancient times to test the purity of gold and silver alloys.

    Key Elements of the Touchstone Method:

    In literature and analysis, the Touchstone method refers to the practice of using a well-regarded work, such as a classic novel, as a standard against which other works can be evaluated. By comparing a particular work to the touchstone, one can assess its literary merit, themes, style, and overall effectiveness. The Touchstone method can also be applied in education. In this context, a touchstone might be an established set of standards or criteria used to evaluate student performance or assess the quality of educational materials.

    Historical Background:
    The term touchstone became popularized in literary criticism by Matthew Arnold, a British poet and cultural critic, who used it to refer to works of literature that serve as a standard for evaluating other works. In his critical essay The Function of Criticism at the Present Time (1864), Arnold argued that critics should compare literary works to a “touchstone” or an exemplary work, which would help them maintain high standards in literature and art. For Arnold, works like Homer’s Iliad or the plays of Sophocles acted as touchstones in the Western literary canon.

    Applications:
    Literary Criticism: The touchstone technique is often used in literary criticism to compare a writer’s style, themes, and substance against the best works of literature. For example, a critic might evaluate a contemporary novel by comparing it to the works of Charles Dickens or Virginia Woolf to understand its thematic complexity or narrative technique.

    Art and Culture: In visual art or theater, the touchstone method could involve comparing an artwork to the works of a master artist like Michelangelo, Van Gogh, or Picasso to assess its quality or emotional resonance.

    Also read: Definition and examples of Peripeteia and Anagnorisis

     

  • What is Pastoral Elegy? Its Examples, and its Characteristics

    What is Pastoral Elegy? Its Examples, and its Characteristics

    What is Pastoral Elegy?

    A pastoral elegy is a special kind of elegy that represents the poet as a shepherd mourning the death of another shepherd. The term ‘pastoral’ is derived from the Greek word “pastor,” meaning “to graze,” and it generally refers to rural life and nature. The pastoral elegy arose in ancient Greece, with notable practitioners like Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus. It was later adopted by the Roman poet Virgil and continued into English literature, with many works written from the Renaissance period (16th century) to the present day.

    Characteristics of Pastoral Elegy

    1. Rural Setting: The poem often takes place in an idyllic, rural setting, with shepherds representing human life and nature. The imagery is drawn from rural life, such as grazing sheep, rustic landscapes, and country activities.
    2. Mourning a Fellow Shepherd: The poet presents themselves as a shepherd mourning the death of another shepherd. The death represents the loss of a noble figure or someone of importance to the poet.
    3. Idealization of the Dead: The subject of the elegy is typically idealized, with the poet glorifying their life and achievements, emphasizing the loss to the world or nature.
    4. Use of Nature Imagery: Nature plays an important role in traditional pastoral elegies. In many cases, nature is depicted as mourning the death, with natural elements like trees, flowers, and animals reflecting sorrow and grief.
    5. Formal and Conventional Style: The form of the pastoral elegy follows specific conventions, including specific imagery and a tone of grief that is exaggerated by its rural and idealized setting.

    Examples of Pastoral Elegy:

    Some of the most notable examples of pastoral elegies include:

    • Spenser’s Astrophel
    • Milton’s Lycidas
    • Shelley’s Adonais
    • Arnold’s Thyrsis and The Scholar Gipsy

    Criticism of Pastoral Elegy:

    While the pastoral elegy has been a prominent form, Dr. Samuel Johnson criticized it as artificial and unnatural, stating that the grieving process in a fictional rural setting lacked the sincerity expected in genuine mourning. This criticism highlights how the form can distance the poet from true emotional expression, making it appear contrived.

    Modern Examples and Unconventional Elegies:

    Though the pastoral elegy remained popular in earlier periods, modern poets have often moved away from these conventions, adapting the form in unconventional ways. For example:

    • W.H. Auden reversed the traditional elegiac form in his famous elegy for W.B. Yeats. In Auden’s poem, nature is not mourning Yeats’ death but rather continuing its course indifferently. Moreover, Auden does not glorify Yeats’ death; instead, he treats the poet ironically, calling him “silly” and pointing out that his poetry made no significant change (“Ireland has her madness and her weather still”).
    • Dylan Thomas, like Auden, was unconventional in his use of the elegy. Rather than focusing on the idealization of the dead, Thomas’s elegies often contain a more personal and visceral tone, challenging the traditional idealization of the deceased.

    Also read: Discuss about georgic poetry: its characteristics and examples