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  • Stream of Consciousness; Its Rise, Characteristics, Examples

    Stream of Consciousness; Its Rise, Characteristics, Examples

    The stream of consciousness novel is an improved and more delicate form of the psychological novel, which Richardson, George Eliot, Mrs. Gaskell, and many others treated long before. The term ‘stream of consciousness’ was, perhaps, used first by May Sinclair in connection with Dorothy Richardson’s novels. What characterizes this class of novel is the treatment of a character-a man or a woman—not in their external life and actions, but in their inner world of psychology. A deep probe is made here into the dark corridor of the human mind, and an analytical survey is attempted to the intricate flow of the human brain. The technique here is to render consciousness active in itself, as it flows from moment to moment. This technique is frequently used, with varying degrees of intensity, by Dorothy Richardson, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf, three notable names in this kind of fiction.

    The stream of consciousness novel is concerned with the atmosphere of a mind. It is not a novel of incidents or action, but instead treats the inner world of man. It depicts and illuminates the particular moments of human experiences and feelings, and reveals how a mind is affected at its core by the same. It shifts from external reality to inner revelation, from the outward world of action to the inner realm of reverie.

    The central aspect of this class of novel is its inward turning towards mental experiences and shocks. The novelist exposes how a man’s mind moves mysteriously and how it flows continuously yet quite intricately. He makes a penetrative analysis of this tendency of the mind, dissecting it in all its elusive and dynamic aspects. His is an expressionist technique to reveal different characters- their inmost thoughts, moods, feelings, however inconsequent or fragmentary these may be. There may appear to be something chaotic, but in essence, the whole approach is consistent.

    The novel is often claimed as a modern epic. No doubt, a novel may possess the vastness of an ancient epic in its plot and characterization. But it is particularly an epic of human psychology. The intricate and mysterious flow of the human mind is brought out in a stream of consciousness novel, and here it assumes an epic character not in its plot-construction, but in its treatment of human psychology. Of course, such a novel has a plot, but the purpose of the plot is not to tell a story of external life but to reveal, as noted already, the inward trend of the mind. Indeed, it has no story in the old conventional sense, and its chief characteristic lies in the treatment of the inner world of certain men and women in a certain situation or background.

    The stream of consciousness novel is, in reality, a record of the inner stream of a human mind. It presents a character in a particular situation, and the trend of his or her thinking or feeling is scrutinized with an artistic exactness. Its effectiveness lies in the delineation of a character more graphically, accurately, and impressively than what is found in traditional novels. It brings to the surface the working of the subconscious state of mind, which is as real as life itself.

    It is quite interesting to examine how and where the stream of consciousness technique originated in English fiction. Something like this is found to occur in the psychological introspections made by several classical novelists of the past, including Richardson, Smollett, Fanny Burney, Sterne, George Eliot, Mrs. Gaskell, and, of course, Dickens, among others. Something this, too, occurs when a character is found to subject himself or herself to the impassioned self-scrutiny, as seen in Jane Austen’s Emma. Sterne’s Tristram Shandy may be taken as a specific instance in this respect. This is claimed even as the first real stream of consciousness novel. But the technique has more sophistication and exclusiveness in modern English fiction after Joyce and Virginia Woolf.

    Some of the most famous examples of Stream of consciousness novels are:

    • James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Ulysses
    • Henry James’s Portrait of a Lady
    • Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse, Mrs Dalloway
    • Dorothy Richardson’s Pilgrimage
    •  Jack Kerouac’s On the Road
    • William Faulkner’s As I Lay Dying
    • Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Notes from Underground
  • A short note on the term ‘narcissism’

    A short note on the term ‘narcissism’

    The term ‘narcissism’ refers to an intense form of self-regard, or attraction to one’s image. The term is derived from Ancient Greek mythology, which tells of a young man called Narcissus so fascinated by his own reflection that he drowns trying to embrace it.

    Famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud adopted the term from British sexologist Havelock Ellis to theorize male homosexuality as sexual attraction to an image of oneself. Freud later rejected this as an explanation of homosexuality, but he retained the concept of narcissism to describe the situation in which libido is withdrawn from external objects and redirected towards the ego. According to Freud, this is how children begin life (a stage he refers to as primary narcissism), and only gradually move away from this towards a situation in which cathexis is sought in the outside world.

    Also read: What is Meistergesang; definition and famous poets

  • What is Meistergesang; definition and famous poets

    What is Meistergesang; definition and famous poets

    Meistergesang is German poetry for singing to melodies. The Meistersinger were mostly burghers of the 14th, 15th, and 16th c. and were organized into guilds on a hierarchical basis. In effect one graduated to the rank of Meister. The meetings were informal occasions and the songs were for the most part religious, didactic, and moral. In this respect, they differed from the Minnesingers whose literary descendants they were. The Meistersinger maintained and developed the traditions of the medieval Minnesingers. They belonged to the artisan and trading classes of the German towns and were regarded as their masters and the founders of their guild of twelve poets of the Middle High German period, which included Wolfram von Eschenbach, Konrad von Würzburg, Reinmar von Zweier, Heinrich Frauenlob and others.

    Meistersingers were particularly common in southern Germany and in the Rhineland. Two of the most famous were Hans Folz and Hans Sachs. The plot of Richard Wagner’s 1868 opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg revolves around the guild of Meistersingers and their singing contest.

  • King James IV of Scotland (1473- 1513): Biography and Influences

    King James IV of Scotland (1473- 1513): Biography and Influences

    King James IV of Scotland, born on March 17, 1473, was the son of James III and Margaret of Denmark. He ascended to the throne in 1488, following the death of his father in the Battle of Sauchieburn. His reign marked a period of relative stability and prosperity for Scotland. He was known for his interest in the arts and sciences. He was a patron of literature, music, and the visual arts, and contributed to the cultural flourishing of his time. He supported the work of poets and scholars, making his court a center of intellectual activity. In 1503, James IV married Margaret Tudor, the daughter of King Henry VII of England, in an effort to strengthen ties between Scotland and England. This marriage later had significant implications for the broader political landscape, as their great-grandson, James VI of Scotland, became James I of England, uniting the crowns in 1603.

    Despite his efforts to maintain peace, James IV engaged in military campaigns. One of the most notable events was the Battle of Flodden in 1513. James personally led an invasion of England, resulting in a disastrous defeat for the Scots. The king himself perished in the battle, making him the last British monarch to die in combat. James IV’s reign is often remembered as a time of economic growth and cultural advancement in Scotland. His interest in learning and the arts left a lasting impact on the country. However, his military ventures, particularly the Battle of Flodden, had significant consequences for Scotland. He faced challenges related to religious tensions during the Reformation period. While he generally sought to maintain stability, religious issues would become more pronounced in the reigns of his successors.  His legacy is intertwined with the broader historical context of the late 15th and early 16th centuries in Europe.

  • Definition of Limerick definition, features and famous examples

    Definition of Limerick definition, features and famous examples

    Limerick:

    This is a short poem of five lines only, the one generally written in anapestic meters, with occasional variations. The theme is usually comical or humorous, while the technique has a striking order.

    This generally consists of the three (first, second and fifth) lines of trimeter and the remaining two lines (third and fourth) of diameter. Such verses are light and popular, although often appear nonsensical in sense. The first, second and fifth lines are longer than the third and fourth lines. The rhyming pattern is AABBA.

    The standard form of the limerick is a stanza of five lines, with the first, second and fifth rhyming with one another and having three feet of three syllables each; and the shorter third and fourth lines also rhyming with each other, but having only two feet of three syllables. The first line traditionally introduces a person and a place, with the place appearing at the end of the first line and establishing the rhyme scheme for the second and fifth lines.

    The limerick form was popularized by Edward Lear in his first Book of Nonsense (1846) and later work, More Nonsense, Pictures, Rhymes, Botany, etc. (1872). Lear wrote 212 limericks.

    Examples:

    1. There was a young lady of Lynn,
    Who was so uncommonly thin
    That when she essayed
    To drink lemonade
    She slipped through the straw and fell in.

    Here we see the first, second and fifth line( lynn, thin and in) rime with each other and the third and fourth(essayed and lemonade) rime with each other.

    2. There was an old man with a beard,
    A funny old man with a beard
    He had a big beard
    A great big old beard
    That amusing old man with a beard

    3. THERE was a small boy of Quebec,
    Who was buried in snow to his neck;
    When they said. “Are you friz?”
    He replied, “Yes, I is—
    But we don’t call this cold in Quebec.” (There was a small boy of Quebec by Rudyard Kipling)

  • Discuss the term The term “repressive tolerance” by Herbert Marcuse

    Discuss the term The term “repressive tolerance” by Herbert Marcuse

    The term “repressive tolerance” refers to the passive acceptance of social and governmental practices, policies and actions which restrict freedom in an absolute sense. The Frankfurt School theorist Herbert Marcuse coined this term in an essay of that title for a book co-written with Robert Wolff and Barrington Moore, Critique of Pure Tolerance (1965).
    Repressive tolerance, Marcuse argues, takes two main forms: (i) the unthinking acceptance of entrenched attitudes and ideas, even when these are obviously damaging to other people, or indeed the environment (the painfully slow response to warnings about climate change and environmental degradation might be seen as an example of this); and (ii) the vocal endorsement of actions that are manifestly aggressive towards other people (the popular support in the US and the UK in the aftermath of 9/11 and 7/7 for the respective government’s attempts to override or limit habeas corpus is a clear example of this). Genuine tolerance, Marcuse argues, can only exist in a situation of intolerance for these limits on real freedom. Slavoj Žižek’s books Violence (2008) and In Defence of Lost Causes (2008) continue and update this line of thought.

    Also read:Reflexive novel: Definition, Meaning and Examples

  • What is an epinicion; definition and famous poets

    What is an epinicion; definition and famous poets

    Epinicion:
    An epinicion is a triumphal song or ode that commemorates a victory, most notably those achieved at the Olympic Games or in honor of a victor in war. The word derives from the Greek term epinikion, which comes from the neuter form of epinikios, meaning “of victory.” This, in turn, is formed from epi- meaning “upon” and nikios, stemming from nikē, which means “victory.” Therefore, an epinicion can be interpreted as a “song of victory” or “victorious song.”

    Structure and Performance
    The epinicion was typically performed by a chorus, often with a solo singer, to celebrate a victor’s return to his city after his triumph. The performance was an expression of celebration and an integral part of the ceremony honoring the victor, be it an athlete or a military hero.

    The song was structured into several groups of three stanzas, arranged as strophe, antistrophe, and epode:

    • Strophe: The first stanza, sung by the chorus as they moved in one direction.
    • Antistrophe: The second stanza, sung as the chorus moved in the opposite direction.
    • Epode: The final stanza, sung while the chorus stood still.

    Subjects and Themes:
    Epinicia were composed in honor of a wide range of victors, including: Runners at the Olympic Games, Pentathletes (athletes who competed in a five-event contest), Wrestlers and boxers, and Charioteers, often the heroes of the equestrian events at the Games.

    In these odes, the poets would celebrate the athlete’s success, detailing their physical prowess and the glory they brought to their city or nation. The odes also often include a praise of the victor’s lineage, his city, and sometimes a reflection on the broader importance of the victory for the community or even for the gods.

    Famous Poets of the Epinicion:
    Some of the most famous poets who composed epinician odes were:

    • Pindar: Perhaps the greatest of the epinician poets, Pindar wrote numerous odes for the victors of the Olympic Games, and his work remains the most celebrated example of this genre.
    • Simonides of Ceos: A poet renowned for his elegiac style, Simonides also composed epinicia, many of which praised victors of the Panhellenic Games.
    • Bacchylides: A contemporary of Pindar, Bacchylides was also known for his epinician odes, which were more accessible and less formal than Pindar’s, yet equally powerful in their celebration of victory.
    • Euripides: Although primarily known for his tragedies, Euripides also wrote an epinicion for Alcibiades, the Athenian general, to commemorate his victory in a prestigious chariot race.

    Cultural Significance
    The epinicion was a song of celebration and a cultural artefact highlighting the intersection of sports, religion, and civic pride in ancient Greece. It symbolised the unity and glory brought to a city through individual triumphs. The epinician poets played a significant role in elevating the reputation of the victor and their city. These odes often conveyed messages of moral and spiritual lessons, and values of the time, such as honour, the favour of the gods, and the pursuit of excellence.

  • A short note on Thomas Carlyle’s work “Sartor Resartus”

    A short note on Thomas Carlyle’s work “Sartor Resartus”

    Sartor Resartus is Thomas Carlyle’s original work, written in 1833 and 1834. The work is deeply personal and could be viewed as an allegorical autobiography, despite its Germanic method and inspiration. The work was written with the German Romantic School of thought in mind. It is still very much Germanic in both its content and approach. The Germanic expression “sartor resartus” means “the tailor re-patched.” There are two parts to the work. The Germanic title refers to a discussion of clothing philosophy in the first section. The second section is about a fictional German professor named Teufelsdrockh, whose philosophical speculations the first section is based on.

    The work is based on one’s own life, as previously stated. The hero is Teufelsdrockh, a fictional German professor who has composed a philosophical treatise on clothes, their history, and their influence. Carlyle wrote the German professor’s speech, and the book is a record of his own spiritual journeys and moral visions. Naturally, the allegorical aspect of Jonathan Swift’s A Tale of a Tub may have been a source of inspiration for Carlyle. However, the author uses cloth, a common material, to express the highly speculative Germanic transcendentalism doctrine, which is considered original. The clothes, which are used as veils and disguises, are cleverly allegorised to show the deeper truth about how people think and act. The act of covering what is real, true within, which is man’s heart, is referred to as “cloak.”

    Sartor Resartus is a serious treatise that marks Carlyle’s depth of thought, range of vision, and force of passion. The interplay of rich imagination and intense irony adds to its vigorous, poetic prose style. Indeed, in its rare blend of imagination and irony, sincerity and impulsiveness, spiritualism and symbolism, Sartor Resartus remains a unique prose work in English literature.

    Also read: Discuss “Sons and Lovers” as a Bildungsroman or Kunslerroman novel

  • Discuss the term différance by Jacques Derrida and its meaning

    French philosopher Jacques Derrida coined the term ‘différance’. He explicitly rules out calling it a concept for the condition of possibility for meaning. As he explains in the invaluable collection of interviews, Positions (1972), translated as Positions (1981), Derrida conceived this neologism to make apparent how the French verb différer has both a temporal and a spatial dimension: on the one hand, it signals delay or reprieve (a deferred payment such as a pension, or a pre-recorded broadcast of a TV program may both be referred to in this way); and on the other hand, it is the movement that separates like from unlike. Derrida adds the third observation to the effect that différance is the process that gives rise to the differences it announces. As such, différance is an origin one never arrives at (its presence is permanently delayed), a difference one never fully succeeds in making, and the perpetual and necessary attempt to do both these things. The term is difficult to translate because the first of the three senses is not available in the English cognate ‘to differ’, making it hard for Anglophones to ‘hear’ its inner complexity. But if one considers that it refers to a condition of possibility rather than a particular form of causality or even effect, then its purpose can be easily understood.

    In the interview already mentioned, Derrida goes on to discuss the notion of transgression in a way that illuminates quite helpfully what he is endeavoring to articulate with this notion of différance: transgression, he says, can never be achieved once and for all, because insofar as a law is transgressed it proves itself transgressive and by that measure, the act itself ceases to be a transgression; so transgression must move ceaselessly to restore the integrity of the law it wishes to transgress. For this reason, as Jacques Lacan and other psychoanalysts have pointed out, the supposedly arch-transgressor, namely the Marquis de Sade, is also of necessity an enthusiast of the law. Derrida’s reading strategy, which he calls deconstruction, assumes that différance underpins every aspect of meaning-making.

  • Discuss the concept ‘Oedipus complex’ by Sigmund Freud

    Discuss the concept ‘Oedipus complex’ by Sigmund Freud

    The concept ‘Oedipus complex’ was introduced by Sigmund Freud in his book Die Traumdeutung (1900), translated as The Interpretation of Dreams (1913). Here, Freud relates that in his clinical experience, the child’s relationship to its parents is the major determinant in the psychical lives of his more neurotic patients. This idea occurred to him a few years earlier during self-analysis. As he reports in a letter to his friend Fliess, in analyzing his affection for his mother and jealousy of his father he was reminded of the Sophocles play Oedipus Rex (429 BC), which he thought could only continue to be so affecting some 2,500 years after it was written because its thematic concerns are universal. Freud elaborated this claim on the individual subject and human society.

    The story of the Oedipus myth, on which Sophocles based his play, is as follows: King Laius of Thebes learns from an oracle that his son will kill him. Thinking to avert this fate, he binds his son’s feet (hence his name, which means swollen feet) and then orders his wife, Jocasta, to kill him. Unable to do so, she orders a servant to carry out the evil deed. Still, instead, he abandons the child in the fields where he is discovered by a shepherd who passes him to a fellow shepherd from Corinth who takes the infant back to his land where he is raised in the court of King Polybus. As an adult, Oedipus also goes to an oracle and is told that he will marry his mother and kill his father. Hoping to avoid his fate, he leaves Corinth and meets his biological father on the road to Thebes, as fate would have it. The two men argue, and Oedipus duly kills his father. He continues on his way to Thebes. Thebes is under the spell of the Sphinx, who has cursed the city. He solves the Sphinx’s riddle, thereby lifting the curse, and is rewarded with the Kingship over the town and the hand of its recently widowed Queen, namely his biological mother. The prophecy is thus fulfilled, but at this point, none of the characters in the play is aware of this fact. When they finally learn the truth of what has transpired, Jocasta hangs herself, and Oedipus blinds himself and goes into exile.

    According to Freud, this myth resonates strongly with everyone because it tells the basic story of childhood development, at least from the boy’s perspective. Psychoanalysis holds that all children develop a love attachment to the parent of the opposite sex and a corresponding rivalry with the parent of the same sex; thus, the little boy loves his mother and wants to usurp his father. What the story narrates is, in effect, object choice, but it also teaches compromise, or what Freud called the reality principle. In 1910, Freud would describe this conflicted desire as the ‘Oedipus complex’, thus inscribing the myth at the center of his thinking and teaching. This phrase has since passed into widespread usage, which has not always been to the advantage of psychoanalysis because many people find it absurd or repugnant (Freud himself defended against such reactions by saying they just proved his point because the myth would not provoke such outbursts if it were not revealing an inner truth). At first, Freud thought this desire had to be literal, but he realized it could also be enacted symbolically. Freud initially confined the ‘Oedipus complex’ period to children under the age of 5, but he later modified his thinking and allowed it to continue beyond the age of 5.

    Also read: Discuss Tennyson’s Tithonus as an instance of the dramatic monologue